在从美国向欧洲大陆法系转移的过程中,程序性特征,如检察官(和警察)的调查取代调查法官(examining magistrate)的调查、证据排除规则和交叉询问证人等与陪审团审判一样,最终在新的制度背景下被高度修改,改变了它们原有的功能和性质。它们失去了对抗性原理以及美国模式下的那些特征,这些特征与对抗性条件下的自由刑事诉讼理念紧密联系。[127]它们的引入并没有引起接受体系拒绝官方控制调查这一概念,而且与原来的美国模式不同,转移后的法律机制即使通过将对程序的权力和控制委托给当事人也无益于保护被告免受政府的能动性。然而,这些转移特征并不是简单地将它们的“译文”构成非对抗性风格。它们被引入欧洲大陆刑事体系是作为强化非对抗程序的最本质特征的手段运作的,即强化官方第三方寻求客观真相。事实上,以前欧陆改革旨在解决古典自由主义信条提出的第三方调查真相的“中立性问题”,与此相一致,引入的特征有效地使调查更加多元化、参与性和动态性并且因此更加公正。这有助于保护个人免受垄断——因而独裁——的官方对真相的调查,从而使得接受国制度背景更加自由,而不是更加对抗。从这个意义上说,转移实际上增强了刑事诉讼自由理念的实施——这并不是根据对抗逻辑,而是根据非对抗逻辑。[128]
因此,这些美国特征到欧洲的这趟旅行并没有创造出对抗性的探戈正义,它们通过强化非对抗性伦巴正义的信条,似乎令人意外地导致了能抵抗未来可能被对抗模式颠覆的接种效应以及从国家获得最大自由的最基本自由意识形态的产生。正如向人体接种少部分有机体以刺激肌体产生抗体从而抵御侵入的所有有机体一样,将一小部分美国对抗程序注入欧洲大陆体系已经加强了其公正的、官方控制的调查程序的基础,并且可能已经产生了抗体能有效对抗美国对抗性、当事人控制的竞技体系在未来大规模的“入侵”。
此外,在叙述层面(这与操作层面一样重要),通过将受到美国启发(即使被修改)的法律特征合并到其刑事诉讼程序中,欧洲大陆国家设法加强其先进且自由的刑事司法体系的全球合法性。[129]事实上,面对依然持续的英美霸权主义论调,其给非对抗程序留下使人联想的审讯时期压迫性程序的印象,[130]一些典型的“美国的”法律特征的“输入”帮助欧洲大陆程序删除了可耻的审讯标签。在葛兰西反霸权运动中,为了未来将采用一种全新的对抗模式进一步减少了这些制度的需求,以便被(特别是被具有全球影响力的普通法律师)视为充分保护个人自由和人权。
总之,对美国的一些程序性特征的接受可以说提升了欧洲体系作为积极政权的形象。然而,欧洲大陆体系并没有采纳美国对抗性的“探戈”正义,而是加强了它们的非对抗性伦巴方式,这种方式保护被告能够对抗独裁国家。它们立即拒绝了真正的对抗性转变并且使自己对未来任何美国化产生免疫。
[1]原文Legal Transplants and the Inoculation Effect: How American Criminal Procedure Has Affected Continental Europe,载《美国比较法杂志》(The American Journal of Comparative Law)2016年秋季刊。作者感谢托玛斯·魏根特(Thomas Weigend)教授和玛特·巴基斯(Marta Bargis)教授,在对许多方面进行重新思考中,他们为我提供了珍贵的帮助。还要感谢杰奎琳·E.罗斯(Jacqueline E.Ross)教授和斯蒂芬·C.沙曼(Stephen C.Thaman)教授,他们对本文提出了很多有用的意见和见解。此外,还要感谢布尔内斯(Mar Jimeno-Bulnes)教授,他对我理解西班牙体系提供了珍贵的帮助。感谢大卫·法格曼(David Faigman)教授以及哈斯汀法学院乌戈·马太(Ugo Mattei)教授的宝贵帮助,他们向我提供了有用的意见和建议。还要感谢加州大学哈斯汀法学院胡曼·亚维(Hooman Yavi),他是2016年的法学博士候选人,他为本文的脚注编辑提供了帮助。还要感谢本期杂志的编辑珍妮弗·安德森(Jennifer Anderson),她对编辑极尽专业和严谨。当然,本文文责自负。
[2]Elisabetta Grande,意大利东方皮埃蒙特大学(Università degli Studi del Piemonte Orientale)比较法教授,加州大学哈斯汀法学院施勒辛格院士,国际比较法学会成员。
[3]徐嘉敏,中国政法大学法硕学院2017级硕士研究生。
[4]这里所谓的“接种”(inoculation),指注射疫苗以预防疾病。作者此处所论及的“接种效应”,指美国对抗式诉讼的某些要素融入了欧陆刑事诉讼,反而强化欧陆刑事诉讼的内在结构和教义,让欧陆刑事诉讼对美国对抗式诉讼更具抵抗性。——译者注
[5]Máximo Langer,“From Legal Transplants to Legal Translations: The Globalization of Plea Bargaining and the Americanization Thesis in Criminal Procedure”, 45 Harv.Int'l L.J., 2004,p.1.
[6]Máximo Langer,“From Legal Transplants to Legal Translations: The Globalization of Plea Bargaining and the Americanization Thesis in Criminal Procedure”, 45 Harv.Int'l L.J., 2004, p.1.
[7]Alan Watson, Legal Transplants: An Approach to Comparative Law,Scottish Academic Press,1974.
[8]意大利比较法学家萨科在其《比较法导论》1992年第5版中提出了一个他命名为“法律共振峰”(Legal formants)的学说。“共振峰”一词引自语音学,指声腔的共振频率。——译者注
[9]Rodolfo Sacco,“Legal Formants: A Dynamic Approach to Comparative Law”(pts.1 & 2), 39 Am.J.Comp.L.1, 1991, p.343.
[10]Maurizio Lupoi, Sistemi Giuridici Comparati: Traccia Di Un Corso,Edizioni Scientifiche Italiane, 2001,p.60.从更广泛的意义上,也可参见Mireille Delmas-Marty, Le Flou Du Droit: Du Code Penal Aux Droits De L Homme,PUF, 2004.
[11]Elisabetta Grande, Imitazione E Dirito: Ipotesi Sulla Circolazione Dei Modelli, Giappichelli,2001.
[12]Roberto Garganella,“Constitutional Grafts and Social Rights in Latin America”, in Gtinter Frankenberg ed., Order from Transfer: Comparative Constitutional Design and Legal Culture,Br J Radio, 2013,p.322; Maria Rosaria Ferrarese,“Il Diritto Comparato E Lesfide Della Globalizzazione, Oltre la Forbice Differenze/Somiglianze”, 31 Rivista Critica Del Dirirpo Privato, No.3, 2013, pp.369, 381, 388; John D.Jackson,“Making Juries Accountable”,50 Am.J.Comp., 2002, pp.477, 530.对于一个有效的园艺比喻,指的是以发现成功或失败模式为目标的法律转移,参见Inga Markovits,“Exporting Law Reform-But Will It Travel?”, 37 Cornell Int'l, 2004, p.95.
[13]See Sujit Choudry ed., The Migration of Constitutional Ideas, Cambridge University Press, 2007.
[14]对于欧陆诚实信用原则转移到英国合同法所产生的双重刺激效应的刺激性解释(a stimulating interpretation of a double irritation effect),参见 Günther Teubner,“Legal Irritants: Good Faith in British Law or How Unifying Law Ends Up in New Divergences”, 61 Mod.L.Rev., 1998, p.11.
[15]关于法律移植以及考虑目的地产品的不同体系的制度背景的需求(the need to take into consideration the different institutional context of the system of production from that of destination),参见Mirjan R.Damaška,“The Uncertain Fate of Evidentiary Transplants: Anglo-American and Continental Experiments”, 45 Am.J.Comp., 1997,p.839.参见John D.Jackson,“Playing the Culture Card in Resisting Cross-Jurisdictional Transplants: A Comment on‘Legal Processes and National Culture’”, 5 Cardozo J.Int'l & Comp., 1997, p.51.对于——根据东道国文化背景——转移的法律术语的去情境化和回归情境化的想法,就好像它们是从“宜家”式全球法律物品市场的货架上购买来的,参见Günther Frankenberg,“Constitutional Transfer: The IKEA Theory Revisited”, 8 Int'l J.Const.,2010, p.563.
[16]Ugo Mattei,“Why the Wind Changed: Intellectual Leadership in Western Law”, 42 Am.J.Comp.,1994,p.195.
[17]Pier Giuseppe Monateri,“The Weak Law: Contaminations and Legal Cultures”, 13 Transnat'l L.& Contemp.Probs., 2003,p.575; Gianmaria Ajani,“Legal Borrowing and Reception as Transplants”, in David S.Clark ed., Encyclopediaof Law and Society: American and Global Perspectives, Sage Publications, Inc., 2007.
[18]Gianmaria Ajani,“By Chance and Prestige: Legal Transplants in Russia and Eastern Europe”, 43 Am.J.Comp., 1995, p.93; Ugo Mattei,“Efficiency in Legal Transplants: An Essay in Comparative Law and Economics”, 14 Int'l Rev.L.& Econ., 1994, p.3; Daniel Berkowitz, Katharina Pistor & Jean Francois Richard,“The Transplant Effect”, 51 Am.J.Comp., 2003, p.16; Markovits,“Constitutional Grafts and Social Rights in Latin America”,in Gtinter Frankenberg ed., Order from Transfer: Comparative Constitutional Design and Legal Culture,Edward Elgar Pub.,2013; William Ewald,“Comparative Jurisprudence (II): The Logic of Legal Transplants”, 43 Am.J.Comp.,1995, p.489; Pierre Legrand,“The Impossibility of‘Legal Transplants’”, 4 Maastricht J.Eur.& Comp., 1997,p.111; Jonathan Miller,“A Typology of Legal Transplants: Using Sociology, Legal History and Argentine Examples to Explain the Transplant Process”, 51 Am.J.Comp., 2003, p.839; Esin Örücü,“Law as Transposition”, 51 Int'l &Comp., 2002, p.205.
[19]关于法律全球化和霸权主义,参见James A.Gardner, Legal Imperialism, American Lawyers and Foreign Aid in Latin America,University of Wisconsin Press, 1980; Duncan Kennedy,“Two Globalizations of Law and Legal Thought, 1850-1968”, 36 Suffolk U.L.Rev., 2003,p.631; Ugo Mattei,“A Theory of Imperial Law: A Study on US Hegemony and the Latin Resistance”, 10 Ind.J.Global Legal Stud., 2003, p.383; William Twining,“Diffusion and Globalization Discourse”, 47 Harv.Int'l L.J., 2006, p.507; Yves Dezalay & Bryant G.Garth, The Internationalization of Palace Wars: Lawyers, Economists and the Contest to Transform Latin American States,University of Chicago Press,2002; Yves Dezalay & Bryant G.Garth,“Corporate Law Firms, NGOs, and Issues of Legitimacy for a Global Legal Order”, 80 Fordham L.Rev., 2012, p.2039.
[20]Mar Jimeno-Bulnes,“American Criminal Procedure in a European Context”, 21 Cardozo J.Int'l & Comp.,2013, pp.409, 436.对于到目前为止,通常指出欧洲法律体系的广泛美国化的经典分析是什么,参见Wolfgang Wiegand,“The Reception of American Law in Europe”, 39 Am.J.Comp., 1991, p.229.
[21]对于1988年的意大利改革,参见William T.Pizzi & Mariangela Montagna,“The Battle to Establish an Adversarial Trial System in Italy”, 25 Mich.J.Int'l, 2004, pp.429, 430; Louis F.Del Duca,“An Historical Convergence of Civil and Common Law Systems-Italy's New‘Adversarial' Criminal Procedure System”, 10 Dick.J.Int'l, 1991,pp.73, 74.关于西班牙陪审团审判的改革,如参见Fernando Gascón Inchausti & María Luisa Villamarín López,“Criminal Procedure in Spain”, in Richard Vogler & Barbara Huber eds., Criminal Procedure in Europe, Duncker &Humblot, 2008, pp.541, 628; Stephen C.Thaman,“Spain Returns to Trial by Jury”, 21 Hastings Int'l & Comp.L.Rev., 1998, pp.241,242.
[22]大约二十年前,克雷格·布拉德利(Craig Bradley)观察到欧洲大陆体系正在变得愈加对抗,参见Craig M.Bradley,“Overview”, in Craig M.Bradley ed., Criminal Procedure: A Worldwide Study,Carolina Academic Press, 1999,pp.xv, xix ff.对 于此问题的 重新重视, 参 见Bradley's comments in the second edition: Craig M.Bradley,“Overview”, in Craig M.Bradley ed., Criminal Procedure: A Worldwide Study, Carolina Academic Press,2007,pp.xvii,xxvii.但是,关于欧洲人权法院的判决对欧洲刑事诉讼制度的协调(harmonizing)作用以及本院赋予《欧洲人权公约》第6条关于“对抗性”程序概念的意义(on the meaning assigned by this Court to the notion of“adversarial”proceedings in connection with Article 6 of the European Convention on Human Rights),1950年11月4日,213U.N.T.S 221,E.T.S.第5号——不一定与普通法国家(correspond to the one assigned to it in common law countries) 相对应——参见John D.Jackson,“The Effect of Human Rights on Criminal Evidentiary Processes: Towards Convergence, Divergence or Realignment?”, 68 Mod.L.Rev., 2005, pp.737, 747.
[23]Is“Inquisitorial Process on the Retreat?”is the question raised by Thomas Weigend,“Should We Search for the Truth, and Who Should Do It?”, 36 N.C.J.Int'l L.Com.Reg.,2011, pp.389, 404.事实上,魏根特教授指出,“这里存在一个明确的趋势,即以牺牲‘纯粹的’职权主义制度为代价来扩大对抗性因素……虽然人们可能会假设这种转移运动最终证明了对抗制固有的优势,但可能有更多的解释供我们选择。”Id., pp.404-5.魏根特教授提出了其他解释,一个混合的、合作的或妥协的程序模式正在欧洲建设中,“这可能反映了一只看不见的手指导刑事诉讼程序朝着最佳状态工作。”Id., p.408; 另见Id., 407ff.然而我的理解是,正如本文试图阐明的那样,这种模式不过是古老的非对抗制模式,只不过它自19世纪以来一直在不断演变。
[24]Elisabetta Grande,“Dances of Criminal Justice: Thoughts on Systemic Differences and the Search for the Truth”, in John Jackson, Máximo Langer & Peter Tillers eds.,Crime, Procedure and Evidence in a Comparative and International Context: Essays in Honour of Professor Mirjan R.Damaška,Hart Publishing, 2008, p.145.另外,关于我对对抗制和非对抗制体系差异的理解的概述,参见Máximo Langer,“From Legal Transplants to Legal Translations: The Globalization of Plea Bargaining and the Americanization Thesis in Criminal Procedure”, 45 Harv.Int'l L.J.,2004,p.1.
[25]Máximo Langer,“From Legal Transplants to Legal Translations: The Globalization of Plea Bargaining and the Americanization Thesis in Criminal Procedure”, 45 Harv.Int'l L.J., 2004,p.1.
[26]对非对抗制/对抗制或纠问式/弹劾式二分法的分析是比较刑事诉讼研究的核心,因此大量的文献都对其进行了广泛而深入的探讨。为了快速引用,参见Elisabetta Grande,“Comparative Criminal Justice”, in Mauro Bussani & Ugo Mattei eds., The Cambridge Companion to Comparative Law, Cambridge University Press, 2012,pp.191, 199ff.关于这一主题的最新调查之一,参见Máximo Langer,“The Long Shadow of the Adversarial and Inquisitorial Categories”, in Markus D.Dubber & Tatjana Hörnle eds., The Oxford Handbook of Criminal Law, Oxford University Press, 2014.
[27]Mirjan R.Damaška,“Evidentiary Barriers to Conviction and Two Models of Criminal Procedure: A Comparative Study”, 121 U.Pa.L.Rev., 1973, p.506 (hereinafter Damaška, Evidentiary Barriers).参见Mirjan R.Damaška,“Models of Criminal Procedure”, 51 Zbornik Pfz, 2001,p.477.我探讨了达马斯卡超越格兰德旧式的弹劾式与纠问式二分法的含义,参见Máximo Langer,“From Legal Transplants to Legal Translations: The Globalization of Plea Bargaining and the Americanization Thesis in Criminal Procedure”, 45 Harv.Int'l L.J.2004,p.1.关于两种体系中寻求真相的更多细致的观点,参见Thomas Weigend,“Is the Criminal Process about Truth?: A German Perspective”,26 Harv.J.L.& Pub.Pol'y, 2003, p.157.
[28]关于两种体系中寻求真相的更多细致的观点,参见Thomas Weigend,“Is the Criminal Process about Truth?: A German Perspective”, 26 Harv.J.L.& Pub.Pol'y, 2003, p.157.
[29]Elisabetta Grande,“Dances of Criminal Justice: Thoughts on Systemic Differences and the Search for the Truth”, in John Jackson, Máximo Langer & Peter Tillers eds., Crime, Procedure and Evidence in a Comparative and International Context: Essays in Honour of Professor Mirjan R.Damaška,Hart Publishing, 2008, p.145.
[30]可以肯定的是,辩方并不总是需要提供另一个不同于检察官提供的真相来赢得胜诉。事实上,由于被告并不承担证明自己无罪的责任,而是由检察官承担证明被告有罪的责任——并因此承担证明所有犯罪构成要素超出合理怀疑的责任——所以被告可以战略性地放弃提供给他的重构现实的机会。他可以简单地声称他的对手未履行举证或说服责任并仍然成功获得无罪释放。但是,他这样做的风险是对方提供的有倾向性的(partisan)事实——法庭上唯一的事实——将赢得被动裁决者的青睐。然而在对抗制中,只要竞技规则公平且被告作出自由选择,其结果就被认为是公平的,并且解释性(interpretive)真相就得到确定。
[31]“作为我们历史上普通法遗赠的一部分,我们不能为对抗制诉讼程序辩护。”John H.Langbein,“The Criminal Trial before the Lawyers”, 45 U.Chi.L.Rev., 1978, pp.263,316(以下简称朗本,在律师面前)。朗本教授关于刑事问题中对抗性风格起源的思想可以在下面著作找到:John H.Langbein, The Origins of Adversary Criminal Trial, Oxford University Press, 2003.甚至在朗本教授在伦敦中央刑事法庭文件(Old Bailey Sessions Papers)上作出研究为这一论断提供强有力证据之前,达马斯卡教授就指出,19世纪之前的普通法刑事诉讼程序基本上是非对抗性的,参见Mirjan R.Damaška,“Structure of Authority and Comparative Criminal Procedure”, 84 Yale L.J, 1975,p.480, p.542 n.156.
[32]关于洛克式自由主义价值观对英国制度机制的影响,参见Damaška,“Evidentiary Barriers”, 45 Harv.Int'l L.J.1, 2004, 532ff.et passim; Mirgan R.Damaška, The Faces of Justice and State Authority: A Comparative Approach to the Legal Process, Yale University Press, 1986.
[33]Damaška,“Evidentiary Barriers”,45 Harv.Int'l L.J., 2004, p.542.
[34]“由于没有关于人类事务的信念或想法”被认为是“唯一或明显正确”(Since no belief or idea regarding human affairs“was considered”exclusively or demonstrably true)。
[35]众所周知,这种表达是卡尔·卢埃林(Karl Llewellyn)对对抗制模式进行描述时所使用的,而不是针对“亲本”(parental)模式,即卢埃林的职权主义模式,参见Karl N.Llewellyn,“The Anthropology of Criminal Guilt”, in Jurisprudence: Realism in Theory and Practice, 1962, pp.439, 444-50.对于这些模式的进一步探索,作者将它们标记为“战斗”(battel)和“家庭”(family)模式,参见John Griffiths,“Ideology in Criminal Procedure or a Third‘Model' of the Criminal Process”, 79 Yale L.J., 1970, p.359.
[36]关于Code d'instruction Criminelle和所谓的“混合模式”,参见Jimeno-Bulnes,“American Criminal Procedure in a European Context”, 21 Cardozo J.Int'l & Comp., 2013,423ff.以及其中引用的文献。
[37]对于欧洲人权法院在影响国内欧陆法院,提高辩方以及受害者在发展(development)阶段、陈述阶段,以及对现场证言的检测阶段的参与度发挥着越来越重要的作用——从而对刑事诉讼各个阶段,包括审前调查、审判、上诉阶段的官方调查的司法垄断提出挑战——参见John D.Jackson & Sarah J.Summers, The Internationlisation of Criminal Evidence: Beyond the Common Law and Civil Law Traditions, Cambridge University Press,2012.
[38]这也是1930年《意大利刑事诉讼法典》仍然有效时宪法法院大量裁决的结果。参见Franco Cordero, Procedura Penale, Giuffrè, 1982, pp.584-8.对于法国庭前审查程序中“参与性原则”变化的分析,参见Jacqueline Hodgson,“Constructing the Pre-trial Role of the Defence in French Criminal Procedure: An Adversarial Outsider in an Inquisitorial Process?”, 6 Int'l J.Evidence & Proof, 2002, p.1.
[39]参见Mireille Delmas-Marty & J.R.Spencer eds., European Criminal Procedure,Cambridge University Press, 2002.关于法国,参见Valérie Dervieux,“The French System”, in Mireille Delmas-Marty & J.R.Spencer eds., European Criminal Procedure,Cambridge University Press,2002, pp.218,242; Richard Vogler,“Criminal Procedure in France”, in Richard Vogler & Barbara Huber eds., Criminal Procedure in Europe, Duncker & Humblot,2008, pp.171, 185-7(hereinafter Vogler, Criminal Procedure in France)(解释了自1981年起,多年来法国刑事诉讼程序中受害人的作用逐渐增强),关于意大利,参见Ottorino Vannini & Giuseppe Cocciardi, Manuale Di DiRiTO Processuale Penale Italiano,CEDAM, 1986, p.368.关于西班牙,参见Richard Vogler,“Spain”, in Craig M.Bradley,Criminal Procedure: A Worldwide Study,Carolina Academic Press,1999,pp.361, 383(hereinafter Vogler, Spain); Gascón Inchausti & Villamarín López,“Criminal Procedure in Spain”, in Richard Vogler & Barbara Huber eds., Criminal Procedure In Europe, Duncker & Humblo, 2008, p.608.关于德国过去几十年受害人法律地位的提高,参见Barbara Huber,“Criminal Procedure in Germany”, in Richard Vogler & Barbara Huber eds., Criminal Procedure in Europe, Duncker & Humblot, 2008, pp.269, 335.
[40]Bundesgerichtshof (BGH)(Federal Court of Justice)Feb.10, 2000, Entscheidungen Des Bundesgerichtshofsin Strafsachen(BGHST)46, 1; Huber,“The French System”, in Mireille Delmas-Marty & J.R.Spencer eds.,European Criminal Procedure, Cambridge University Press, 2002, p.329 n.218.
[41]Vogler,“Criminal Procedure in France”, in Richard Vogler & Barbara Huber eds., Criminal Procedure in Europe, Duncker & Humblot GmbH,Criminal Procedure in Europe (Vol.S 112) Schriftenreihe des Max-Planck-Instituts für ausländisches und internationales Strafrecht: Strafrechtliche Forschungsberichte,Berlin: Duncker & Humblot, 2008,p.233 (citing Jaqueline Hodgson, French Criminal Justice: A Compatative Account of the Investigation and Prosecution of Crime in France,Hart Publishing, 2005, pp.123-4).
[42]See Legge 7 dicembre 2000, p.397,“Disposizioni in Materia di Indagini Difensive”, G.U.Jan.3, 2001,n.2 (It.) [now Codice di procedura penale(C.p.p.)(Code of Criminal Procedure)p.391-bis].在大多数检察活动中,由辩方自己调查的现象仍然存在。辩护律师在审前阶段可自由地与他方证人接触,他可能会要求检察官询问潜在的对被告有利的证人[C.p.p.p.391-bis(10)]或扣押对被告有利的材料(C.p.p.p.368),从而在辩方自行调查时获得检察官的帮助。同样,在检察官调查结束时,辩方也可以要求检察官收集新的无罪证据[C.p.p.art.415-bis(4)].而且,在开庭审判前,双方都可以自由地检查彼此的卷宗[C.p.p.p.391-octies(3), 433, 415-bis(2), 419(2)-(3), 430(2)].
[43]正如约翰·杰克逊(John Jackson)所指出的,欧洲人权法院对欧洲大陆刑事诉讼的改革产生了巨大影响,(人权)委员会和法院旨在将第6条规定的辩护权利“翻译”为对抗主义的一种愿景(a vision of adversarialism),其与普通法中的对抗式审判程序矛盾(une procédure contradictoire)的欧陆概念一致(That was as compatible with the continental notion of une procedure contradictoire as with the common law adversary trial)。必须保证被告有权获得法定代理权,享有被告知与诉讼程序相关的所有信息的权利、出庭以及在审判时提出论据和证据的权利。但这并不排除法官在提问,甚至在传唤证人时的大量参与。Jackson,“The Effect of Human Rights on Criminal Evidentiary Processes: Towards Convergence, Divergence or Realignment?”, 68 Mod.L.Rev.,p.753.也可参见Jackson & Summers, The Internationlisation of Criminal Evidence: Beyond the Common Law and Civil Law Traditions,Cambridge University Press, 2012, pp.86-7et passim.
[44]对于法国,参见Dervieux,“The French System”, in Mireille Delmas-Marty & J.R.Spencer eds., European Criminal Procedure,Cambridge University Press, 2002, p.232;另参见Article 61 of the Previous Italian Code of Criminal Procedure, 1930.对于1988年葡萄牙进行的改革,参见José de Souto de Moura,“The Criminal Process in Portugal”, in Mireille Delmas-Marty ed., The Criminal Process and Human Rights: Toward a European Consciousness,Springer, 1995,pp.45, 48.对于西班牙新入职法官原则的贯彻,参见Gascón Inchausti & Villamarín López,“Criminal Procedure in Spain”, in Richard Vogler & Barbara Huber eds., Criminal Procedure In Europe, Duncker &Humblot, 2008, pp.562-3.
[45]Vogler, Criminal Procedure in France, Duncker & Humblot, 2008, p.209.
[46]在1988年颁布新的《刑事诉讼法典》的10年后,为了避免一个法官把判决集中于调查监督和庭审证据充足性的相关问题上,在一个多元化理论基础上发生了分化(遵循大量的宪法法院裁决)。参见Decreto Legislativo 19 febbraio 1998, n.51, G.U.Mar.3, 1998, n.66 (It.).
[47]Vogler, Criminal Procedure in France, Duncker & Humblot, 2008, p.251.
[48]Sabine Gless,“Truth or Due Process? The Use of Illegally Gathered Evidence in the Criminal Trial-Germany”, in Jürgen Basedow, Uwe Kischel & Ulrich Sieber eds., German National Reports to the 18th International Congressof Comparative Law, Mohr Siebeck, 2010, p.675, p.681 n.26.
[49]关于西班牙只有在口头审理中获得的证据才被认为是具有证明力的这一普遍性规则,参见Gascón
Inchausti & Villamarín López,“Spain Returns to Trial by Jury”, 21 Hastings Int'l & Comp.L.Rev., 1998, p.615; Vogler, Spain,“The French System”,in Mireille Delmas-Marty & J.R.Spencer eds., European Criminal Procedure,Cambridge University Press, 2002, p.388.1988年,意大利体系实现了审前调查和裁决之间最强的隔离,以维护真相寻求者的公正性。当时全新的《意大利刑事诉讼法典》废除了审判法院与审前调查档案的所有联系,建立了一个“双档案”制度,使审判法庭只能接触审判档案。关于双档案制度的操作方面,参见Michele Panzavolta,“Reforms and Counter-Reforms in the Italian Struggle for an Accusatorial Criminal Law System”, 30 N.C.J.Int'l L.& Com.Reg., 2005, pp.577, 586.这样做,它将审判法官与审前阶段公职人员(公诉人、预审调查法官和审前听证法官)进行的活动完全隔离开来,防止审前调查的结果在审判开始之前就对审判法庭造成损害。今天的意大利审判法官在接触案件时对案件根本不了解,好似一块白板。关于西班牙陪审团审判时非常相似的解决方案,参见Trial by Jury Organic Law, pmbl.pt.III, art.34(1), B.O.E.1995, p.122; 也可参见Thaman,“Spain Returns to Trial by Jury”, 21 Hastings Int'l & Comp.L.Rev., 1998, 271ff., 281ff.
[50]将欧陆刑事审判法院上诉监督机制的深厚传统与“进入19世纪”后的英国普通法程序的一级裁判典型对比,引自John H.Langbein,“The English Criminal Trial Jury on the Eve of the French Revolution”,in Antonio Padoa Schioppa ed., The Trial Jury in England, France, Germany 1770-1900, Duncker & Humblot, 1987,pp.13, 37.这种对比的遗产(legacy)已经延续到现在,参见Damaška,“Spain Returns to Trial by Jury”, 21 Hastings Int'l & Comp.L.Rev., 1998, pp.514-5.
[51]杰克逊为欧洲独特的“参与式模式”的兴起提供了论据,这种模式超越了竞技/纠问的分歧并根植于英吉利海峡两岸共同的哲学和政治传统。他将这一发展归因于欧洲人权法院指出的对欧洲刑事诉讼程序进行重新调整的路线,参见Jackson,“Overview”, in Craig M.Bradley ed., Criminal Procedure: A Worldwide Study,Carolina Academic Press, 1999,pp.xv, xix ff; Sarah J.Summers, Fair Trials: The European Criminal Procedure Tradition and the European Court of Human Rights,Hart Publishing, 2007; Jackson & Summers, The Internationalisation of Criminal Evidence: Beyond the Common Law and Civil Law Traditions, Cambridge University Press, 2012.也可参见Diane Marie Amann,“Harmonic Convergence? Constitutional Criminal Procedure in an International Context”, 75 Ind., 2000, pp.809, 818-20, 870; Mireille Delmas-Marty,“Toward a European Model of the Criminal Trial”, in Mirelle Delmas-Marty, The Criminal Process and Human Rights: Toward a European Consciousness, Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1994, p.191.
[52]例如,在预审阶段,受害者可以代替检察官;在西班牙,他是一名真正的自诉人,尽管公诉人希望撤销此案,但他仍能保留起诉书,从而使法官有机会在诉讼中期审理案件。在葡萄牙,助理(the assistente)在juiz de iinstrugdo前扮演类似的角色,而在意大利,无论被害人是否反对检察官作出的撤销决定,调查法官都可以迫使检察官对被告进行控诉。因此,检察官、被害人和法官对刑事诉讼程序有着不同的观点和利益,他们有时朝着相同的方向前进,有时朝着不同的方向前进。即使检察官决定不上诉,包括西班牙、葡萄牙和德国在内的许多体系的被害人也可以对无罪释放提出上诉。当然,在审判时,寻求真相的过程中,法院可以举证以赞成或反对被告,这些证据有时与检察官的证据相吻合,有时相抵触,检察官甚至可以在审判时要求无罪释放或对被告的定罪提起上诉,这可能会使检察官与被害人自己的法律动机不一致。关于西班牙公诉和自诉的一些有趣的对比策略(contrasting strategies) 案例,参见Thaman,“Spain Returns to Trial by Jury”, 21 Hastings Int'l & Comp.L.Rev., 1998, pp.397-400.
[53]关于根本性差异的结果,参见Grande,155ff.
[54]Douglas Hay & Francis Snyder,“Using the Criminal Law, 1750-1850: Policing,‘Private Prosecution,and the State’”, in Douglas Hay & Francis Snyder eds., Policing and Prosecution in Britain 1750-1850,Oxford University Press, 1989,pp.3, 43.
[55]John H.Langbein,“The Origins of Public Prosecution at Common Law”, 17 Am.J.Legal Hist.,1973,pp.313, 315ff.
[56]“他们中的大部分是当地的绅士(leading local gentry),由皇室委员为每个县和特定的城市任命”,而且“他们被授予的是荣誉和权威而不是金钱”,不再是“由中央负责组织和支付的检察官团”。Id.,pp.318, 335.关于治安官作为事实上的“公共”检察官(公诉人)的历史和活动,参见Id., passim; John H.Langbein,“The Historical Origins of the Privilege against Self-Incrimination at Common Law”, 92 Mich.L.Rev.,1994, pp.1047, 1060.
[57]Langbein,“The Origins of Public Prosecution at Common Law”, 17 Am.J.Legal Hist.,1973,p.317.See also John H.Langbein,“Controlling Prosecutorial Discretion in Germany”, 41 U.Chi.L.Rev.,1974, pp.439, 444.
[58]1972年——英格兰和威尔士皇家检察署成立之前的十多年,杰克逊写道:“当‘警察’起诉时,正确的分析是有人提起了诉讼,而且这个人是警察的事实并没有改变起诉的性质。”Richard M.Jackson,“The Machinery of Justice in England”, 155 (6th ed.1972), quoted in Langbein,“The Origins of Public Prosecution at Common Law”, 17 Am.J.Legal Hist.,1973, pp.440-1.
[59]Hay & Snyder,“Using the Criminal Law, 1750-1850: Policing,‘Private Prosecution, and the State’”,in Douglas Hay & Francis Snyder eds., Policing and Prosecution in Britain 1750-1850, Oxford University Press, 1989,p.35.关于类似的观察,参见Mirjan R.Damaška, Evidence Law Adrift, Yale University Press, 1997, p.118.
[60]关于法官从积极到被动的角色转变,参见John H.Langbein,“Historical Foundations of the Law of Evidence: A View from the Ryder Sources”, 96 Colum.L.Rev.,1996, p.1168; Langbein,“The Historical Origins of the Privilege against Self-Incrimination at Common Law”, 92 Mich.L.Rev.,1994; Langbein,“Before the Lawyers”, 45 U.Chi.L.Rev., 1978.
[61]Hay & Snyder,“Using the Criminal Law, 1750-1850: Policing,‘Private Prosecution, and the State’”,in Douglas Hay & Francis Snyder eds., Policing and Prosecution in Britain 1750-1850, Oxford University Press, 1989,pp.29-30.
[62]See Joan E.Jacoby,“The American Prosecutor: A Search for Identity”, ch.1(1980).
[63]关于检察官的权力和作用的比较性考虑(comparative considerations),参见Langbein,“The Origins of Public Prosecution at Common Law”, 17 Am.J.Legal Hist.,1973.即使这篇文章在某些方面已经过时,但在这一点上仍然可以被认为是一项具有里程碑意义的研究。
[64]即使如亚伯拉罕·戈德斯坦(Abraham Goldstein)等人所主张的,真正的受害者可能会因检察官享有不受监管的自由裁量权,他可以控告所谓的犯罪者并让受害者参与诉讼,而感到让渡了(alienated from)“他的”案件,这种共同的理解似乎仍是成立的。参见Abraham Goldstein,“Defining the Role of the Victim in Criminal Prosecution”, 52 Miss.L.J., 1982, pp.515, 518ff.(www.zuozong.com)
[65]关于比较性观点,参见William T.Pizzi & Walter Perron,“Crime Victims in German Courtrooms: A Comparative Perspective on American Problems”, 32 Stan.J.Int'l,1996, p.37.
[66]See Langbein,“The Origins of Public Prosecution at Common Law”, 17 Am.J.Legal Hist.,1973, p.446.关于公诉人享有的不受监管的检察垄断的历史原因,另见 Goldstein,“Defining the Role of the Victim in Criminal Prosecution”, 52 Miss.L.J., 1982,548ff.关于授予美国检察官不起诉的独占且不受约束的自由裁量权,参见Wayne R.Lafave, Jerold H.Israel, Nancy J.King & Orin S.Kerr,Criminal Procedure, West Academic Publishing,2009, §13.2,710ff, especially §13.2(g),714ff.
[67]当然,在欧陆体系中亦是如此,即使正式适用强制起诉原则,检察官在决定是否起诉方面仍享有很大的自由裁量权。关于意大利体系中的这一点,参见Elisabetta Grande,“Italian Criminal Justice: Borrowing and Resistance”, 48 Am.J.Comp.,2000, pp.227, 240ff.然而,无论是强制起诉原则(或Legalitädtsprinzip,至少在部分国家,如在意大利、西班牙、葡萄牙和德国是这样的情况)还是权宜之计原则(the principle of expediency)(或Opportunitädtsprinzip,如法国、比利时和荷兰)适用于欧陆体系时,这种检控自由裁量权会受到严格限制,受害者可以通过各种方式监督和限制检察官拒绝控诉的行为。例如,在根本没有控诉或检察官简单地就拒绝起诉的法国,受害者可以通过一些方式介入以强迫起诉,如在审判法庭前直接传唤(直接引用),或对于重大罪行或嫌犯不明的案件通过申请民事当事人身份(plainte avec constitution de partie civile)对预审法官查明的事实起诉。Vogler,“Criminal Procedure in France,‘The French System’”, in Mireille Delmas-Marty & J.R.Spencer eds., European Criminal Procedure, Cambridge University Press, 2002,pp.240-1.在德国,“如果受害者控告犯罪,作出不起诉的决定必须告知他。他可以通过审查的方式对此提起上诉。”Huber,“The French System”, in Mireille Delmas-Marty & J.R.Spencer eds., European Criminal Procedure, Cambridge University Press,2002, p.313.根据《意大利刑事诉讼法典》第410条规定,受害者可以反对检察官撤销请求,并要求进一步调查;这可能导致检察官在法官的压力下向嫌疑人提出强制性正式的指控。在西班牙,自诉人可以要求继续审理案件以反对检察官的撤销请求。参见Gascón Inchausti & Villamarin López,“Spain Returns to Trial by Jury”,21 Hastings Int'l & Comp.L.Rev., 1998,pp.591-2.根据《葡萄牙刑事诉讼法》第287条,助理(assistente)可以向调查法官(juiz de instrugão)请求“指示”以挑战检察官放弃指控的决定。参见Jorge de Figueiredo Dias & Maria João Antunes,“Portugal”, in Christine Van Den Wyngaert ed., C.Gane, H.H.Kühne & F.McAuley coeds., Criminal Procedure Systems in the European Community, Bloomsbury Professional, 1993, pp.317, 328.
[68]Erstes Gesetz zur Reform der Strafverfahrensrechts[1.StVRG] [First Criminal Procedure Reform Act],Dec.9, 1974, Bundesgesetzblatt(BGBL) I (Ger.).See Thomas Weigend,“Germany”, in Craig M.Bradley ed.,Criminal Procedure: A Worldwide Study, Carolina Academic Press, 2007, pp.243, 262.
[69]Código de processo penal [C.p.p.] [Code of Criminal Procedure] art.262 (Port.).See de Figueiredo Dias & João Antunes,“Italian Criminal Justice: Borrowing and Resistance”, 48 Am.J.Comp., 2000,318ff.
[70]Codice di procedura penale [C.p.p.] [Code of Criminal Procedure] arts.126ff.(It.).See Giulio Illuminati,“The Accusatorial Process from the Italian Point of View”, 35 N.C.J.Int'l & Com.Reg., 2010,pp.297,308; Grande,“Italian Criminal Justice: Borrowing and Resistance”, 48 Am.J.Comp., 2000, 232ff.
[71]关于这个人物的历史根源的简要概述,参见Jimeno-Bulnes,“American Criminal Procedure in a European Context”, 21 Cardozo J.Int'l & Comp., 2013,424ff.
[72]关于德国体系,参见Huber,“The French System”, in Mireille Delmas-Marty & J.R.Spencer eds., European Criminal Procedure, Cambridge University Press, 2002,p.326.关于葡萄牙相关制度的介绍,参见de Figueiredo Dias & João Antunes,“Portugal”, in Christine Van Den Wyngaert ed., C.Gane, H.H.Ktihne &F.McAuley co-eds., Criminal Procedure Systems in the European Community, Bloomsbury Professional, 1993, p.319.
[73]关于意大利检察官可以协助被告的情况,参见Legge dicembre 2000, p.397,“Disposizioni in Materia di Indagini Difensive”, G.U.Jan.3, 2001, n.2 (It.) (now Codice di procedura penale[C.p.p.][Code of Criminal Procedure]p.391-bis)and, to some extent, C.p.p.arts.358, 421-bis (It.).
[74]John H.Langbein,“Historical Foundations of the Law of Evidence: A View from the Ryder Sources”, 96 Colum.L.Rev., 1996, p.1169.
[75]See Craig M.Bradley,“Mapp Goes Abroad”, 52 Case W.Res.L.Rev.,2001, p.375.例如,沃格勒强调了美国对西班牙改革中涉及非法手段获得证据的不可采的影响,参见Vogler,“The French System”, in Mireille Delmas-Marty & J.R.Spencer eds., European Criminal Procedure, Cambridge University Press, 2002,p.381.另见 Carlos Fidalgo Gallardo,“Las‘Pruebas Ilegales’: De La Exclusionary Rule Estadounidense Al Articulo”,11.1 LOPJ,2003.
[76]《葡萄牙刑事诉讼法》第129条和《意大利刑事诉讼法典》第195条规定了传闻禁止规则。在西班牙,传闻证言仅在形式上允许使用,因为在实质中它会受到很大的限制,这导致了与意大利相同的结果,即原则上禁止传闻证言,鉴于此,为了获得一个基于这些证据作出的有罪判决,判例法对传闻证据的证明价值施以苛刻的条件,必须满足以下条件:①传闻证人必须准确识别第一手证人(first-hand witness),以及②第一手证人不可能出席审判(因死亡、下落不明,或在国外居住),确保第一手证人的陈述不会被传闻证人代替。Gascón Inchausti & Villamarin López,“Spain Returns to Trial by Jury”, 21 Hastings Int'l & Comp.L.Rev.,1998, pp.617-8.
[77]See C.p.p.art.64(3) - (3-bis), as modified by Legge 1 marzo 2001, n.63, art.2, G.U Mar.22,2001, n.68 (It.); Gilberto Lozzi, Lezioni Di Procedura Penale,Giappichelli,2012,pp.125-6.关于德国米兰达式的排除规则,其历史及内容,参见 Gless,“Truth or Due Process? The Use of Illegally Gathered Evidence in the Criminal Trial-Germany”, in Jürgen Basedow, Uwe Kischel & Ulrich Sieber eds., German National Reports to the 18th International Congress of Comparative Law, Mohr Siebeck, 2010,700ff.关于更宽阔的比较视角,但只更新到2000年,参见Stephen C.Thaman,“Miranda in Comparative Law”, 45 ST.Louis U.L.J.581.
[78]有关意大利,参见C.p.p.art.271; Lozzi,“Constitutional Grafts and Social Rights in Latin America”, in Gtinter Frankenberg ed., Orderfrom Transfer: Comparative Constitutional Design and Legal Culture 322, Edward Elgar Pub., 2013, 285ff (讨论提到过的文章)。关于西班牙,参见Organic Law on the Judiciary art.11 (1)(B.O.E.1985, 6).不仅涉及刑事诉讼程序,而且涉及所有程序的西班牙条款规定“以直接或间接侵犯基本权利和自由的方式获得的证据”都将无效(由作者翻译)。这与《西班牙宪法》第18(3)条保障的基本通信隐私权有关。关于这个问题,参见Gascón Inchausti & Villamarín López,“Spain Returns to Trial by Jury”, 21 Hastings Int'l & Comp.L.Rev., 1998,578ff.和其中引用的文献。关于德国,参见Huber,“The French System”,in Mireille Delmas-Marty & J.R.Spencer eds., European Criminal Procedure, Cambridge University Press,2002,p.347.该文章指出“通过监视通信获得的证据,如果不满足监视的实质先决条件(第100a条),则不可采。缺乏形式先决条件并不必然会导致证据的不可采”。
[79]参见Organic Law on the Judiciary art.11(1) (Spain), 与“住宅不可侵犯”的宪法原则相联系(Constitution Española art.18.2, B.O.E.n.311, Dec.29, 1978).关于西班牙法院适用的这些规定,参见Gascón Inchausti & Villamarín López,“Spain Returns to Trial by Jury”, 21 Hastings Int'l & Comp.L.Rev., 1998,577ff; Vogler,“Spain”, in Craig M.Bradley ed., Criminal Procedure: A Worldwide Study, 2d.ed.,Carolina Academic Press,2007, 379ff.尽管《意大利刑事诉讼法典》第191条的一般性条款规定任何违法取得的证据均不可采,但法院和学术评论员对该条作出了限制性解释,因此在实践中不排除非法搜查和扣押的“果实”。有关讨论参见Lozzi,“Constitutional Grafts and Social Rights in Latin America”, in Gtinter Frankenberg ed., Order from Transfer:Comparative Constitutional Design and Legal Culture 322, Edward Elgar Pub., 2013,228ff.在德国,法院认为非法取得的证据不可采。然而,关于“以明显、有意识地侵犯一个人的宪法权利的方式获得的证据有日益否定的倾向”,参见Weigend,“Should We Search for the Truth, and Who Should Do It?”, 36 N.C.J.Int'l L.Com.Reg.,2011, pp.401 & n.57.另见Weigend,“Germany”, in Craig M.Bradley ed., Criminal Procedure: A Worldwide Study,Carolina Academic Press, 2007, 251ff.
[80]参见Huber,“The French System”, in Mireille Delmas-Marty & J.R.Spencer eds., European Criminal Procedure, Cambridge University Press,2002, p.348.值得指出的是,这种情形一般会发生在此情况下,“即使在证据收集阶段出现了程序性错误,法院仍然认为该证据原则上是可采的。”Weigend,“Should We Search for the Truth, and Who Should Do It?”, 36 N.C.J.Int'l L.Com.Reg., 2011, 400f.事实上,尝试“同时服务于事实真相的建立和正当程序的坚守”,参见Gless,“Truth or Due Process? The Use of Illegally Gathered Evidence in the Criminal Trial-Germany”, in Jürgen Basedow, Uwe Kischel & Ulrich Sieber eds., German National Reports to the 18th International Congress of Comparative Law, Mohr Siebeck,2010, p.676.德国法律中,非法收集的证据的可采性一般理论将寻求客观事实的需求视为限制正当程序原则的一种可接受的正当理由,只要这种行为不过分违反正当程序原则即可。有关这一点的进一步讨论,一般参见Gless, id.
[81]James B.Thayer,“The Jury and Its Development”, 5 Harv.L.Rev.,1892, p.249.
[82]或者,用达马斯卡的话来说,有必要支持对无法预估的裁决的合法性进行事前控制。Damaška,“Private Prosecution, and the State”, in Douglas Hay & Francis Snyder eds., Policing and Prosecution in Britain 1750-1850, Clarendon Press,1989, p.46.
[83]参见Langbein,“Before the Lawyers,‘From Legal Transplants to Legal Translations: The Globalization of Plea Bargaining and the Americanization Thesis in Criminal Procedure’”,45 Harv.Int'l L.J., 2004, p.315.
[84]Id., p.306.
[85]Id., pp.294-5.
[86]Id., pp.315-6.
[87]Id., p.306.
[88]Damaška,“Private Prosecution, and the State”, in Douglas Hay & Francis Snyder eds., Policing and Prosecution in Britain 1750-1850, Clarendon Press, 1989, p.80.
[89]例如,考虑德国的加夫根(Gäfgen)案例,在这个案例中警察以酷刑相威胁使被告认罪并且使其供述了被绑架杀害的男孩的抛尸地点。此案在德国引起了关于为达成救援目的的酷刑合法性的讨论,并将其提交给欧洲人权法院。参见Gäifgen v.Germany, 2010-IV Eur.Ct.H.R., 2010,p.247; Gless,“Truth or Due Process? The Use of Illegally Gathered Evidence in the Criminal Trial-Germany”, in Jürgen Basedow, Uwe Kischel &Ulrich Sieber eds., German National Reports to the 18th International Congress of Comparative Law, Mohr Siebeck,2010, p.696.
[90]在这里考虑贾尔斯诉加利福尼亚案例(128 S.Ct., 2008, pp.2678, 2682),本案中受害者被杀害之前,一项向警方投诉的谋杀证据被否决;关于此案,参见David A.Sklanski,“Anti-Inquisitorialism”, 122 Harv.L.Rev., 2009, pp.1634, 1693ff.对于一件不是根据“非对抗”方式裁决的类似案件,参见The European Court of Human Rights’decision in Al-Khawaja and Tahery v.the United Kingdom, 2011-VI Eur.Ct.H.R., p.191.
[91]参见 Fed.R.Evid.103(a).该规则可以概括如下:作为一般规则,在没有提交、请求或反对的情况下,审判法官的行为是不会错误的。因此,如果不及时反对,便会放弃不适当证据的准入,如果在记录中没有提供证明即所提证据的实质内容 (Improper exclusion will be waived without an offer of proof that places the substance of the proposed evidence on the record)就会放弃不适当的排除,并且在没有请求的情况下,限制指令的权利也会放弃。Paul F.Rothstein, Myrna S.Reader & David Crump, Evidence in a Nutshell,West Academic Publishing, 2012, p.10.然而,“尽管有上述黑体字规则,如果审判法官在没有请求的情况下作出正确规则和指令,他也没有错。”Id.但是,这种情况很少发生:如果一方不小心疏忽或故意不采取行动而未能对不可采证据提出异议,法官通常会采纳这一证据。一旦获得采纳,该证据就与其他已被采纳的证据具有同等法律效力。只有在极端情况下,而且通常代表刑事被告,法院才会主动干预并排除不可采的证据(sua sponte)。Graham C.Lilly, Daniel J.Capra & Stephen A.Saltzburg, Principles of Evidence,West Academic Publishing,2009, pp.5-6.
[92]参见Damaška,“From Legal Transplants to Legal Translations: The Globalization of Plea Bargaining and the Americanization Thesis in Criminal Procedure”, 45 Harv.Int'l L.J., 2004, p.535.
[93]有时审判法官需要自己采取行动。《联邦证据规则》第103(e)条规定了显见错误规则(the plain error doctrine),即使没有提出适当的反对意见,如果错误“严重影响司法程序的公正性、完整性或公共声誉”,上诉法院也可以自行关注弃权(forfeited)错误并驳回审判结果。United States v.Olano, 507 U.S.725,732 (1993).然而,该规则不仅反映了上诉法院的自由裁量权,而且由于“以当事人责任为基础的对抗制度深深植根于我们的法律体系,特别是在证据领域”(as noted by Micheal H.Graham, Evidence: A Problem, Lecture and Discussion Approach,West Academic Publishing, 2011, p.695), 显见错误规则很少适用。事实上,“该规则普遍适用率并不高,这使得在案件审理过程中无意依赖它。”Graham, id., p.696.
[94]Bundesgerichtshof[BGH][Federal Court of Justice]June 14, 1960, Entscheidungen Des Bundesgerichtshofs in Strafsachen[BGHST]14, 361, 364-5.另见Gless,“Truth or Due Process? The Use of Illegally Gathered Evidence in the Criminal Trial-Germany”, in Jürgen Basedow, Uwe Kischel & Ulrich Sieber eds., German National Reports to the 18th International Congress of Comparative Law, Mohr Siebeck, 2010, p.681 n.22.
[95]Codice di procedura penale[C.p.p.] [Code of Criminal Procedure] art.234(3) (It.); Código de Processo Penal[C.p.p.][Code of Criminal Procedure]art.130 (Port.).
[96]关于早已纳入欧陆体系的传闻禁止的排除规则的“固有”理由(即“第一手信息要比通过中介过滤后的信息更可靠”),参见Damaška,“Private Prosecution, and the State”, in Douglas Hay & Francis Snyder eds., Policing and Prosecution in Britain 1750-1850, Clarendon Press, 1989, p.15 n.22 (quoting Mirjan Damaška,“Hearsay in Cinquecento Italy”, in Michele Taruffo ed., Studi in Onore di Vitorio Denti,Pubblicazioni della Università di Pavia,1994,p.59).
[97]See Strafprozessordnung[StPO] [Code of Criminal Procedure] §136a (Ger.); C.p.p.arts.64(2),188 (It.).
[98]事实上,在意大利,诉讼程序的任何阶段或层级(level)违背了证据规则能够(也必须)总是被正式提出。参见C.p.p.art.191(2)(It.).关于更多的处理情况(treatment),参见Gascón Inchausti &Villamarín López,“Spain Returns to Trial by Jury”, 21 Hastings Int'l & Comp.L.Rev., 1998, p.614,以及其中引用的文献。然而,德国最近似乎偏离了这种共同态度,这至少与一些证据排除规则有关(并且不影响《德国刑事诉讼法典》第136a条的规定,即使被告同意采纳有争议的证据,法院也总是强制适用该规定)。关于权利遭到侵犯的人对非法手段获得的证据的否决权,最近被德国法院作为证据排除规则的执行条件而提出,(即所谓的Wiederspruchslösung),参见Gless,“Truth or Due Process? The Use of Illegally Gathered Evidence in the Criminal Trial-Germany”, in Jürgen Basedow, Uwe Kischel & Ulrich Sieber eds., German National Reports to the 18th International Congress of Comparative Law, Mohr Siebeck,2010, p.686.萨冰·格勒斯(Sabine Gless)对这一条件在德国发展的发生也提出严厉批评。德国在这方面的判例基础可以在联邦法院找到[BGH][Federal Court of Justice] Feb.27, 1992, Entscheidungen Des Bundesgerichtshofsin Strafsachen[BGHST]38, 214, 225以及随后的判决中也可以找到。参见Gless,“Truth or Due Process? The Use of Illegally Gathered Evidence in the Criminal Trial-Germany”, in Jürgen Basedow, Uwe Kischel & Ulrich Sieber eds., German National Reports to the 18th International Congress of Comparative Law, Mohr Siebeck,2010, p.686.
[99]C.p.p.art.195(2) (It.).
[100]See C.p.p.arts.195(2), 512 (It.); StPO §251(1)-(2)(Ger.); Ley De Enjuiciamiento Criminal[L.E.CRIm.][Criminal Procedure Law] art.730.另见Al-Khawaja and Tahery v.the United Kingdom, 2011-VI Eur.Ct.H.R.191.科斯托夫斯基诉荷兰(Kostovski v.The Netherlands)的案例,166 Eur.Ct.H.R.(ser.A)(1989),以及后续的判决(See Jacksom & Summers, The Internationalisation of Crimical Evidence: Beyond the Common Law and Civil Law Traditions, Cambridge University Press,2012,86ff), 欧洲人权法院在审判中使用未经检验的传闻证言并不违反《欧洲人权公约》第6(3)(d)条(当证人有充分理由不出席时)。甚至在缺席证人的证言是定罪的唯一或决定性依据的情况下,只要有足够的平衡因素来确保整个程序是公平的,也是如此。参见Al-Khawaja, 2011-VI Eur.Ct.H.R.p.253 (147).
[101]最主要的例外是法国的巡回法院,它的混合(mixed)陪审团会提交未经论证的裁决。
[102]即使事实的检验者中包括了半自治的非专业法官,如德国舍芬(Schöffen),或者是一个完全自治的机构,就像西班牙的陪审团审判一样,情况也是如此。“如果‘不可采’证据在审判中被引入或被提出,主审法官将告知非专业法官必须忽视这些证据。”Weigend,“Germany”, in Craig M.Bradley ed.,Criminal Procedure: A Worldwide Study, 2nd ed., Carolina Academic Press, 2007, p.254 n.60.在西班牙,《陪审法院组织法》(B.O.E.1995,122)第54条第3款规定,法官应当向陪审员作出要忽视任何被错误采纳的证据的指示,然后在审判时宣布为非法证据。Stephen C.Thaman,“Europe's New Jury Systems: The Cases of Spain and Russia”, 62 Law & Contemp.Probs, 1999,pp.233, 253.
[103]Weigend,“Germany”, in Craig M.Bradley ed.,Criminal Procedure: A Worldwide Study, 2nd ed., Carolina Academic Press, 2007, p.254.
[104]“有理由质疑,是否真的像预期的那样,法官能忽视他们已经看到的证据。作出合理判决的义务是否真的可以限制法官的决定也是有争议的。”Jackson & Summers, The Internationalisation of Criminal Evidence:Beyond the Common Law and Civil Law Traditions, Cambridge University Press, 2012, p.73.
[105]Damaška,“Private Prosecution, and the State”, in Douglas Hay & Francis Snyder eds., Policing and Prosecution in Britain 1750-1850, Oxford University Press, 1989, p.52; 也参见对达马斯卡著作的书评:Roger Park,“An Outsider's View of Common Law Evidence”, 96 Mich.L.Rev., 1998, pp.1486, 1489.
[106]C.p.p.arts.493ff.(It.); L.E.Crim.art.659(Spain).
[107]Edmund M.Morgan, Some Problems of Proof under the Anglo-American System of Litigation,Praeger,1956, p.113.
[108]或者至少像法国一样,现在为双方当事人代表提供了一个机会,即在法庭询问完证人和当事人由他们询问时,可绕过先前强制性的法官调解程序。参见infra note 104.意大利是这样一个国家:自1988年以来,意大利引入了全面的交叉询问制度,它是唯一的用于询问证人以及专家和当事人的询问技术。C.p.p.pp.498-9,503(It.).直接和交叉询问证人制度在1987年被引入葡萄牙。Código De Processo Penal[C.p.p.] [Code of Criminal Procedure]art.348(4) (Port.).关于西班牙直接和交叉询问证人制度,参见L.E.Crim., 708 ff.此外,《德国刑事诉讼法典》第239(1)条规定当事人可直接和交叉询问证人,但只能根据控方和辩护人的共同请求。在这种情况下,当事人询问证人,而法官只被允许提出其他问题。
[109]Vogler,“Criminal Procedure in France,‘The French System’”, in Mireille Delmas-Marty &J.R.Spencer eds., European Criminal Procedure, Cambridge University Press, 2002, p.217.评论法国的改革,法国改革可以追溯到2000年,如前文注释103所述——只要当事人代表在法院询问之后,在主审法官(president)许可的情况下,可直接向证人、被告和民事主体(parties civiles)提出问题。参见 Code De Procedure Penale [C.PR.PEN.][Cede of Criminal Procedure] pp.312, 442.1, 536.
[110]See supra Part II,A.1.
[111]关于即使法令允许美国法官询问证人,他们仍自行施加的被动性,参见Damaška,“Private Prosecution, and the State”, in Douglas Hay & Francis Snyder eds., Policing and Prosecution in Britain 1750-1850, Oxford University Press, 1989, p.90.根据《联邦证据规则》第614条的规定,法官在审判时可以自发传唤证人并可以在审判时询问证人,皮兹(Pizzi)和蒙塔格纳(Montagna)评论道:《联邦证据规则》第614条在美国并不存在问题,因为法官谨慎地使用权力传唤证人,而且上诉法院一直强烈警告审判法官在审判中切忌提出太多问题,以免陪审团觉得他们放弃了中立角色而已经认可了案件的一面。Pizzi & Montagna,“Spain Returns to Trial by Jury”, 21 Hastings Int'l & Comp.L.Rev., 1998, p.447.
[112]Damaška,“Private Prosecution, and the State”, in Douglas Hay & Francis Snyder eds., Policing and Prosecution in Britain 1750-1850, Oxford University Press, 1989, p.79.
[113]关于德国的直接和交叉询问作为一种可基于请求获得的证人询问技术,参见the aforementioned St-PO §239(1) and the discussion by Huber,“The French System”, in Mireille Delmas-Marty & J.R.Spencer eds.,European Criminal Procedure, Cambridge University Press, 2002, p.318.值得指出的是,在德国,StPO第239条从未用于实践。但根据《德国刑事诉讼法典》第240(2)条的规定,在法院结束询问后,双方总是有权提问证人和专家,尤其辩护律师会广泛使用该权利。关于法国,当事人代表可以根据请求直接询问证人、被告和民事主体(parties civiles)的这种可能性——如前所述,即使仅仅是一种可能性,它也被认为是具有革命性意义的,参见Code De Procedure Penale[C.PR.PEN.] [Cede of Criminal Procedure].然而,在这种情况下,很少有当事人能抓住该机会。参见 Richard S.Frase,“France,‘Overview’”, in Craig M.Bradley ed., Criminal Procedure: A Worldwide Study, Carolina Academic Press, 1999, pp.201, 233-4.
[114]在意大利,在独裁的诉讼程序(monocratic proceedings)中,双方可以放弃向当事人和证人进行直接和交叉询问的权利。参见C.p.p.567(4).
[115]对西班牙审判法院主动提出证据的权利的严格限制,主要是由《西班牙刑事诉讼法》第729(2)条判例法解释强加的,该判例法——是审判时独家(the principle of exclusive party presentation of evidence) 提出证据的原则的例外——允许法院依职权听审证据。参见 Gascón Inchausti & Villamarín López,“The Battle to Establish an Adversarial Trial System in Italy”, 25 Mich.J.Int'l, 2004, p.561 n.13 (referring to the case law on this point),pp.607, 613.关于意大利审判法院重新获得的依职权引入证据的巨大权力,该权力在1988年新法典颁布后进行了高度限制,参见 Grande,“Italian Criminal Justice: Borrowing and Resistance”, 48 Am.J.Comp.,2000, pp.245-6, 250.在德国,法院负责发现真相,因此它必须检查所有与判决有关的证据,而不管是否有参与者对此提出要求。StPO§244(2).然而,各方可能提供自己的证据,并可能要求法院听取他们建议的其他证据。StPO§§214(3), 220, 244-5.法国也是如此。Cf C.PR.PEN.art.310.对于后者的进一步讨论,参见 Stephen C.Thaman, Comparative Criminal Procedure: A Casebook Approach, Carolina Academic Press, 2008, p.18.
[116]对于这些主题的深入分析,参见Damaška,“Private Prosecution, and the State”, in Douglas Hay &Francis Snyder eds., Policing and Prosecution in Britain 1750-1850, Oxford University Press, 1989, 79ff; Mirjan R.Damaška,“Presentation of Evidence and Factfinding Precision”, 123 U.Pa.L.Rev., 1975, pp.1083, 1088ff.
[117]See John D.Jackson,Sarah J.Summers, The Internationalisation of Criminal Evidence: Beyond the Common Law and Civil Law Traditions, Cambridge University Press, 2012, 以及附随文本。
[118]Trial by Jury Organic Law(B.O.E.1995, p.122).有关西班牙陪审团审判制度及其历史的详细说明,参见Thaman,“Spain Returns to Trial by Jury”, 21 Hastings Int'l & Comp.L.Rev., 1998.另见Carmen Gleadow,“Spain's Return to Trial by Jury: Theoretical Foundations and Practical Results, 2001-2002”, S.T.Louis-Warsaw Transatlantic L.J.,2002,p.56; Carmen Gleadow, History of Trial by Jury in the Spanish Legal System, Edwin Mellen Pr.,2000.
[119]其中包括杀人罪、威胁、不履行提供协助的法定义务、盗窃、纵火以及针对公共行政(public administration)的若干种犯罪,比如不当处理官方文件(mishandling official documents)、贿赂、影响兜售、挪用公款、欺诈和公职人员要求的非法征税(illegal levies demanded by public officials)、公职人员禁止谈判、虐待囚犯。参见Thaman,“Spain Returns to Trial by Jury”, 21 Hastings Int'l & Comp.L.Rev., 1998, pp.259-60.
[120]Gascón Inchausti &Villamarín López,“Spain Returns to Trial by Jury”, 21 Hastings Int'l & Comp.L.Rev.,1998, p.645.
[121]Grande,“From Legal Transplants to Legal Translations: The Globalization of Plea Bargaining and the Americanization Thesis in Criminal Procedure”, 45 Harv.Int'l L.J., 2004,p.1.
[122]参见 Gascón Inchausti & Villamarín López,“Spain Returns to Trial by Jury”, 21 Hastings Int'l &Comp.L.Rev., 1998, p.628 (陪审团在英美模式中引入)。另参见Thaman,“Spain Returns to Trial by Jury”, 21 Hastings Int'l & Comp.L.Rev., 1998, p.242(讨论西班牙以英美模式重新引入陪审团审判是否“可以再次成为使欧洲大陆刑事诉讼程序更加对抗化的催化剂,正如19世纪法国大革命之后的欧洲大陆”一样)。
[123]关于检察官提出的无罪释放请求的具体案例,参见Thaman,“Spain Returns to Trial by Jury”, 21 Hastings Int'l & Comp.L.Rev., 1998, pp.392-7.
[124]根据对过程的垂直和内部的检查,在作出决策过程中要提供多样性观点。见上文第一部分B.2的讨论。欧洲人权法院在塔克斯奎特诉比利时(Taxquet v.Belgium)案中确立了一项原则,即刑事案件判决必须基于合理的事实和理由以及以对证据的理性评估为基础来确保有效的上诉权的原则,参见2010-VI Eur.CT.H.R.145,17792.参见Stephen C.Thaman,“Should Criminal Juries Give Reasons for Their Verdicts?:The Spanish Experience and the Implications of the European Court of Human Rights Decision in Taxquet v.Belgium”,86 Chi.-Kent.L.Rev.,2011, pp.613, 633f.
[125]Ley De Enjuiciamiento Criminal [L.E.CRIM.] [Criminal Procedure Law] pp.846-bis(c) (a).See Mar Jimeno-Bulnes,“Jury Selection and Jury Trial in Spain: Between Theory and Practice”, 86 Chi.-Kent L.Rev.,2011, pp.585, 601.
[126]See Grande,“From Legal Transplants to Legal Translations: The Globalization of Plea Bargaining and the Americanization Thesis in Criminal Procedure”, 45 Harv.Int'l L.J., 2004,p.1.
[127]使用英加·马科维茨(Inga Markovits)的园艺隐喻(参见Inga Markovits,“Constitutional Grafts and Social Rights in Latin America”, in Gtinter Frankenberg ed., Order from Transfer: Comparative Constitutional Design and Legal Culture, Edward Elgar Pub., 2013, p.233),这些法律机制并没有像“盆栽植物”那样旅行,也没有在接受国体系的文化价值冲突中找到肥沃的土壤。
[128]再次,用英加·马科维茨的话说,“当地的园丁正在削剪从国外进口的植物以使其适应欧洲的土地。”Id.,p.109.
[129]在此意义上,借用乔纳森·米勒(Jonathan Miller)的话,讨论“合法产生的移植”是可能的。Miller, Gianmaria Ajani,“By Chance and Prestige: Legal Transplants in Russia and Eastern Europe”, 43 Am.J.Comp.,1995, p.854.或者,根据英加·马可维茨对美国陪审团移植到俄罗斯遇到的困难的观察,可以讨论移植图像——产生或——重构的影响(to speak about the image—generating or—remaking effect of a transplant):俄罗斯陪审团如何在法律改革者的计划内进步如此之大?作者认为,这是因为陪审团被引入欧陆刑事诉讼程序似乎是为了实现一个高尚且浪漫的目标,这个目标唤醒了新自由世界;走得更高的自信的公民;人人都善良真实;甚至可能是“十二怒汉”,因为作者看不到有任何理由将电影和电视排除在推动国家重塑自身的清单之外。Markovits,“Constitutional Grafts and Social Rights in Latin America”, in Gtinter Frankenberg ed., Orderfrom Transfer: Comparative Constitutional Design and Legal Culture,Edward Elgar Pub.,2013, p.110.
[130]对于非对抗程序作为压迫性程序(as an oppressive process)的一贯想法,这想法仍然“唤起了西班牙宗教裁判所的蒙面侍从(hooded minions) 的形象”,参见Weigend,“Should We Search for the Truth, and Who Should Do It?”, 36 N.C.J.Int'l L.Com.Reg., 2011, p.406 n.82.此外,请考虑戈登·万·凯塞尔(Gordon van Kessel)在他的一篇文章的引言中如何告诫他的读者:“与普通2002法国家普遍存在的观点相反,现代欧陆体系并不依赖酷刑或假定被告有罪直到确定他们无罪。”Gordon van Kessel,“European Trends Toward Adversary Styles in Criminal Procedure and Evidence”, in Malcolm M.Feeley & Setsuo Miyazawa eds., The Japanese Adversary System in Context, Palgrave Macmillan, 2002, p.225.
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